Email: dineshrajak02016@gmail.com

Affiliation: Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi, India

Nationality: Indian

Does agrarian question matter in Global South? Land and 'Caste Capital' and 'Rural Non-Farm Economy' in Central India: A Field Perspective

Abstract

The agrarian question remains highly relevant in the Global South, particularly in India, where nearly 60% of the population still resides in rural areas. Despite decades of agrarian reforms, land distribution remains inequitable due to elite biases favoring dominant social classes. Simultaneously, climate change has emerged as a severe crisis, disproportionately affecting vulnerable rural communities and placing their livelihoods at greater risk.As the neoliberal state withdraws from welfare responsibilities, market-driven policies have further marginalized these populations, exacerbating socio-economic distress. The rural-agrarian economy in India has undergone significant transformations over the past three decades, particularly following the economic reforms of the 1990s. As a result, the rural non-farm economy has emerged as a crucial sector offering livelihood and income opportunities to large rural populations. Non-farm activities have become ubiquitous in rural livelihoods. This study examines how the traditional rural economy is evolving alongside access to non-farm jobs, while also analysing the shifting relationships between caste groups and their traditional occupations.

This paper examines the intersection of climate change, agrarian distress, and migration in Bundelkhand, Central India. It explores how climate-induced livelihood insecurities drive out-migration to the informal sector and compel rural households to diversify their income sources. Additionally, it investigates local coping mechanisms and local community responses to these environmental and economic disruptions. By analysing state interventions and grassroots perspectives, this study contributes to broader discussions on agrarian transformation, environmental justice, and rural sustainability in the Global South. It aims to understand the role of caste in shaping the rural non-farm economy in Bundelkhand, Central India. It specifically explores how privileged caste groups leverage their social, cultural, and economic capital to secure employment and business opportunities in the non-farm sector. The study further examines how landed caste groups perpetuate caste-based inequality by maintaining control over economic resources. While privileged groups have relatively easy access to employment in the non-farm sector, marginalized groups often face exclusion and discrimination in their transition to non-agricultural work.

Bundelkhand, one of India's most impoverished regions, has historically been dominated by social elites, feudal lords, and local rulers who monopolized resources. This empirical study draws on fieldwork conducted in two villages in February 2023 to March 2024, where a household census survey and in-depth interviews with key informants from diverse social groups were carried out. Findings indicate that transitioning to non-agricultural work is fraught with inequalities. Within the local hierarchical framework, caste position and capital significantly impact employment opportunities in the non-farm economy. The possession of land and education plays a crucial role in determining access to these jobs. In the village there are 415 households.

Despite modernization, the village economy largely operates under traditional patron-client arrangements, deeply rooted in caste hierarchies. Service caste groups lack bargaining power and continue to be subjugated by dominant caste groups. While caste-based occupations have modernized in urban settings, allowing for some degree of autonomy, they still retain strong caste-based networks. Examining the materialistic dimension of caste is crucial in understanding its role in sustaining the informal economy and hindering marginalized groups from accessing better opportunities. Caste remains deeply entrenched in Indian society, influencing not only social relations but also economic structures. While much of the scholarship on caste has explored its social, cultural, and political dimensions, the economic aspects remain underexamined. These economic dimensions are critical for understanding the persistence of caste in contemporary neoliberal India. Initially, modernization theory posited that caste would become irrelevant with economic development. However, research has consistently demonstrated the continued relevance of caste in shaping employment patterns. Economic reforms and market liberalization have not diminished caste-based inequalities; instead, they have reinforced them. Scholars like Harriss-White (2015) argue that caste plays a significant role in India's vast informal sector, while Jodhka (2015) contends that neoliberal capitalism strengthens caste by fostering network-based economic structures. These networks rely on caste-based connections, perpetuating social and economic hierarchies rather than dismantling them. Understanding the economic dimensions of caste under neoliberalism is essential, as it highlights how caste adapts to modern economic systems, subtly reproducing itself in new forms while maintaining its influence over labour, capital, and opportunities.

The shifts in rural occupational structures and the migration of rural households to informal urban sectors are complex processes. It is crucial to examine how the labour market evolves in both rural and urban spaces with the advent of new employment opportunities in the service and manufacturing sectors, facilitated by modern technology and digital advancements. As rural populations from Bundelkhand transition into new employment avenues, their engagement and negotiation with emerging economic realities present critical social dynamics that merit further exploration. Opportunities for disadvantaged groups and individuals lacking capital to engage in the non-farm sector in Bundelkhand are extremely limited, leaving little possibility for economic advancement. In contrast, upper-class and upper-caste households are able to leverage their capital and profit from the regional political economy. Sectors such as trading and transportation present significant opportunities, as interactions between villages and towns have increased substantially. The economic dynamics of the region are increasingly shaped by urban centers, influencing and driving village economies, and vice versa.

Bio

Dinesh Rajak is a PhD candidate at the Centre for the Study of Social Systems (CSSS), School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), New Delhi, India. His doctoral work critically examines the process of "moving out of agriculture" and patterns of labour migration to urban informal sectors, with a regional focus on Bundelkhand, Central India. His research investigates how capitalist expansion into rural spaces reshapes labour markets, social hierarchies, and household survival strategies. He critically engages with neoliberal policies, urbanization, technological shifts, and economic restructuring, analysing how dominant classes and communities capitalize on these transitions by exploiting natural resources.

Dinesh has published research on rural migrant laborers, agrarian change, livelihoods, and the COVID-19 pandemic. He actively follows contemporary sociological debates and has presented his work at various national and international conferences. He has also attended several academic workshops, including the 'Emancipatory Rural Politics Initiative South Asia Collective (ERPISAC)' organized by Amoh Shah and Bhoopendra Ahirwar.

As a first-generation learner from a rural migrant family, Dinesh brings both insider and outsider perspectives to his study of rural society. His lived experience informs his critical engagement with issues of agrarian distress, migration, and social inequality. He is also actively involved in rural political movements and has participated in recent farmer protests, highlighting his commitment to grassroots issues.

He also did MPhil from JNU, dissertation titled "Changing Pattern of Agrarian Structure in Madhya Pradesh". He did his graduation (B.A) and post-graduation (M. A Sociology) in the Department of Sociology and Social Work, Dr. Harisingh Gour Vishwavidyalaya, Sagour, Madhya Pradesh.